Justifying The State Essay Example for Free

Justifying The State Essay Q1 If the state is not a voluntary organisation, how can one be under any obligation to obey its commands? This is a question about justifying the state. What D. D. Raphael calls the grounds of political obligation.1 If the state can be justified somehow then so can the commands it makes, whether it is voluntary or not. This would be a state built on individual consent; obligation to the commands of the state would flow from that consent. This essay will discuss the possibility of justifying of the state through the idea of a social contract. The state when it creates a law draws a line one cannot cross without consequences. For clarity I am talking about a serious law, specifically one that obviously has a moral base, the law against murder for example. An individualist might say I have no intention of crossing that line anyway because I believe it would be morally wrong to do so. The law in his case may as well not exist. Just by not breaking a law it can appear as though he supports it. When what he might agree with is what the law defends/upholds /represents, and that is the moral principle behind it. This is one reason why some people appear to uphold the law when in fact all they may be doing is following a personal moral code. or simply agreeing with the basic rational belief shared by most people that murder is wrong or (maybe) tax for the NHS is good for example. I suggest this analogy can be applied when questioning many commands of the state. When I obey the state by paying taxes, I may not be doing so because I am obligated too by law but for other reasons including moral ones. Socialists (as do many others) might argue that they are happy to pay more tax in return for a wider societal benefit that includes all, i.e. as in the National Health Service. Therefore a socialist might argue that she paid her National Insurance not because the law obligates her too, but because it fits her moral attitudes and outlook anyway. The fact that she has no legal right to refuse to pay becomes relevant in this case only if she actually doesnt. The above argument is Lockean to the extent that it appeal[s] to the idea of individual consent.2 It is also in part my own view, which is (I think) essentially individualist in nature, though not libertarian. The relevance of my own view to this essay is that when thinking about this question, I realised that I had no idea what my own moral position was regarding some of the most crucial problems and contradictions of political philosophy. Many of these questions require (I think) a moral stance in order to be able to make sense of them. This may seem like a non-academic approach as if I am personalising or reducing this essay to subjective notions, however the questions and issues of political philosophy are in large part moral questions and issues that therefore have as a basis, personal moral opinions. Lockes view according to Wolff is that obligations to the institutions of the state must be justified in terms of the will, choices or decisions of those over whom they have authority.3 Justification of the institutions of the state that enforce obligation then is reliant on the idea that personal autonomy is of premier value. Will Kymlicka defines this as the belief that the individual is morally prior to the community. One objection to this is the communitarian argument that the individual is not morally prior to the community instead individuals are a product of the community.4 There are other objectors to Lockes idea that autonomy is the primary value. Wolff writes that Bentham considered the primary value is not autonomy but happiness whether we consent to the state is irrelevant. 5 This utilitarian argument is that the happiness of society, as a whole is of more value than personal autonomy or the happiness of the few or one. And that therefore one has a duty to obey the commands of the state as it pursues this goal. So if the state decides that having nuclear weapons is for the greater good (happiness) then I would be obligated to pay my share of tax for them whatever I thought. I may be against nuclear weapons or the military in general for moral reasons (pacifism for example) but my moral objection is sacrificed for the greater happiness. The problem political philosophers face is finding ways to solve issues like the one above. Just how does one justify the state? One theory is the idea of the social contract. Wolff here defines the project of the social contract theory. The project of showing that individuals consent to the state lies behind the idea of social contract theory. If, somehow or other, it can be shown that every individual has consented to the state, or formed a contract with the state, or made a contract with each other to create a state, then the problem appears to be solved.6 It is difficult to support the idea that the state, and thereby its commands and responding obligations, can be justified by the theory of a social contract. The theory of a social contract tries to justify political obligation as being based on an implicit promise, like the obligation to obey the rules of a voluntary association.7 If there were such a contract (based on the idea that the state is a voluntary organisation) the problem of individual obligation to the state would be solved. One could join (or leave) institutions of the state at will, and not be subject to state penalties. This is clearly not so. To clarify this further I can ask a different question: how much like a voluntary association is the state? The consensus among political philosophers is I think that the state is not a voluntary organisation. To be born is to be joined to it. As Raphael says the universality of the states jurisdiction makes its compulsory character more pervasive and more evident. 8 Individuals are inextricably linked to it in many ways, for example through the financial/legal institutions. Neither of these institutions are voluntary, they both carry obligations that are enforceable by law. For a comparison I will examine what I think a voluntary organisation is. The obligations I have to the UEA regarding my degree, I agreed to honour. They were stated, I accepted. This does not mean I think the UEA is perfect. Just because I am obligated, (I agreed to the UEA rules) does not mean I cannot criticise the parking problem. What is important is that I chose to join. My obligations to the UEA are voluntary, and I can withdraw from them voluntarily and leave the university should I choose. This is not possible in the case of the state. [I] am subject to the rules whether I like it or not.9 As a general philosophical attitude I am nervous or sceptical of organisations people are forced to join or have to remain joined to, this includes the idea of a state. This could be framed as, (if this sentence makes sense) I do not like the idea that there is a group I am unable not to join. These reasons might help to explain why I am generally sceptical of some of the motives of our own state. So where does this leave us? The above contentions highlight some of the problems of the social contract theory. The central objection to it is that the state is not voluntary therefore there can be no mutually agreed contract. Nor has there historically ever been one. As Wolff observes, if there ever was a social contract What is the evidence? Which museum is it in?10 The idea of a hypothetical contract is an attempt to solve this problem. It does not rely on any formal notion of actual consent, be it historical, express, or tacit.11 The hypothetical contract relies on hypothetical consent. If hypothetical consent were possible it would provide a moral reason for political obligation. That is the ingredient the question this essay is discussing implicitly implies is missing. The idea asks us to imagine a position from where we could successfully negotiate a social contract. Rawls idea is a very complex one that effects many issues. In his Theory of Justice, Rawls sets out primarily to establish what moral principles should govern the basic structure of a just society.12 Rawls Theory of Justice suggests a set of specific moral principles that he hopes will achieve this consensus view. It is these principles that critics of the theory in the main object to. What they are concerned with is the kind of society that would emerge from behind any veil of ignorance whatever its character. For the purpose of this essay the idea of a veil of ignorance which is subject to many conditions, is the device Rawls uses to argue for consent. If people can agree on what would be just, (which he argues is possible using the principles he suggests) from behind a veil of ignorance the consent reached would be a voluntary contract. Again the problem remains, what principles really constitute a just society are not clear. Objections to Rawls ideas include the libertarian critique. Kukathas and Pettit13 argue that for principled libertarians like Nozick the state that would emerge from Rawlss theory is bound to seem inherently evil.14 Nozicks objections are based on his libertarian view that Individuals have rights, and there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights)15 To conclude is this essay is very difficult; the argument I have tried to demonstrate is that one cannot be under any obligation to obey the commands of the state using the social contract model. I have argued that the social contract fails because it is not consensual. I have also tried to show that the idea of hypothetical contract cannot work because the veil of ignorance still does not produce consent because people cannot agree on what the principles of a just state are. One can only be obligated to obey the commands of the state (I think) when its principles are consensual. Bibliography Chandran Kukathas and Philip Pettit, Rawls, A Theory of Justice and its Critics, (Polity Press 1990) Kymlicka, Will, Contemporary Political philosophy. Raphael, D D, Problems of Political Philosophy, (Macmillan press 1990) Wolff, Jonathan, An Introduction to Political Philosophy, (oxford University Press 1996) Colin Dunlop His II Political Philosophy Dr Kathleen Stock 04-04-03 Q1 If the state is not a voluntary organisation, how can one be under any obligation to obey its commands? 1 Raphael, D D, Problems of Political Philosophy, p175 2 Wolff, Jonathan, An Introduction to Political Philosophy, p38 3 Ibid.p38 4 See Kymlicka, Will, Contemporary Political philosophy, Ch5 (I think) his discussion multiculturalism and communitarianism. 5 Ibid.p38 6 Ibid.p43 7 Raphael, D D, Problems of Political Philosophy, p182 8 Ibid.p181 9 Ibid.p181 10 Wolff, Jonathan, An Introduction to Political Philosophy, p44 11 Ibid.p44 12 Chandran Kukathas and Philip Pettit, Rawls, A Theory of Justice and its Critics, p36 13 Ibid. See chapter 5 The Libertarian Critique 14 Ibid.p74 15 Robert Nozick quoted by Chandran Kukathas and Philip Pettit in, Rawls, A Theory of Justice and its Critics, p76

America Needs to Use Less Chemicals :: Farming Agriculture Environmental Essays

America Needs to Use Less Chemicals How would you like going to the grocery store and finding out that prices on your regular food items have increased sharply? How would society react to a giant inflation on goods that are needed most? Would poverty and starvation increase with such inflation? These are all questions that would have to be answered if farm chemicals were to be banned throughout the world. Banning farm chemicals, such as herbicides and pesticides, would in turn lower the yields farmers would receive from their crops. It would also increase the demand for food, along with the price the consumer would have to pay. But, are there alternative ways of controlling weeds and insects, using a more natural way society will find more acceptable? This debate has been growing more and more each year, but no answer has availed itself. When farmers and society cooperate, education and limits can help slow down pollution and still keep yields to a maximum. Under the current circumstances, farm chemicals are needed for both the farmer and society. With education, chemicals can be used efficiently by everyone. In the debate over chemicals, many people in society believe that more organic fertilizers and weed killers should be used to eliminate pollution due to chemicals. This is a great hypothesis, but when you examine the problem this is nearly impossible. Manure is just one of the examples on how the pollution of fertilizers and weed killers could be reduced. Manure is an organic substance that can substitute many other forms of fertilizers. In reality, it would be impossible to cover every acre of farm ground with manure. Society today is led to believe that manure is safe for water and is free of pollution when actually it is not. Manure potentially carries many funguses and bacteria that can pollute our water supply. Recently it was discovered that a natural fertilizer has the potential of killing many types of noxious weeds. Nick Christians, an Iowa State University researcher, has discovered corn gluten to be the first "natural" weed killer and fertilizer. Corn gluten is a protein s ubstance extracted from corn during processing. Researchers have found that the corn gluten extract has the potential to interfere with germination in crabgrass and other noxious weeds. On the other hand, "the natural corn byproduct is less effective and more expensive than synthetic weed killers," noted Christians (28). America Needs to Use Less Chemicals :: Farming Agriculture Environmental Essays America Needs to Use Less Chemicals How would you like going to the grocery store and finding out that prices on your regular food items have increased sharply? How would society react to a giant inflation on goods that are needed most? Would poverty and starvation increase with such inflation? These are all questions that would have to be answered if farm chemicals were to be banned throughout the world. Banning farm chemicals, such as herbicides and pesticides, would in turn lower the yields farmers would receive from their crops. It would also increase the demand for food, along with the price the consumer would have to pay. But, are there alternative ways of controlling weeds and insects, using a more natural way society will find more acceptable? This debate has been growing more and more each year, but no answer has availed itself. When farmers and society cooperate, education and limits can help slow down pollution and still keep yields to a maximum. Under the current circumstances, farm chemicals are needed for both the farmer and society. With education, chemicals can be used efficiently by everyone. In the debate over chemicals, many people in society believe that more organic fertilizers and weed killers should be used to eliminate pollution due to chemicals. This is a great hypothesis, but when you examine the problem this is nearly impossible. Manure is just one of the examples on how the pollution of fertilizers and weed killers could be reduced. Manure is an organic substance that can substitute many other forms of fertilizers. In reality, it would be impossible to cover every acre of farm ground with manure. Society today is led to believe that manure is safe for water and is free of pollution when actually it is not. Manure potentially carries many funguses and bacteria that can pollute our water supply. Recently it was discovered that a natural fertilizer has the potential of killing many types of noxious weeds. Nick Christians, an Iowa State University researcher, has discovered corn gluten to be the first "natural" weed killer and fertilizer. Corn gluten is a protein s ubstance extracted from corn during processing. Researchers have found that the corn gluten extract has the potential to interfere with germination in crabgrass and other noxious weeds. On the other hand, "the natural corn byproduct is less effective and more expensive than synthetic weed killers," noted Christians (28).

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: Not for the Adolescent

Mr. Jordan AP English III 13 January 2013 Huckleberry Finn For decades, Mark Twain’s â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† has spurred many controversies because of its offensive language, bad grammar, and racial bias. Some schools have even banned it from being taught; despite the benefits that one receives from it. When read to the right audience, one could learn from the harsh dialect, the use of satire, and the historical setting.However, because of the more advanced components of this book, â€Å"The Adventures of Huck Finn† should only be taught to high-school seniors in advanced English classes. One of the most popular reasons as to why â€Å"The Adventures of Huck Finn† is banned in some schools is because of the use of offensive language such as the â€Å"n† word and other racist comments and actions, mostly when referring to Jim, the runaway slave. In an article written by Allen Webb, he states, â€Å"†¦it was clear that hearing the word come out of my mouth made my African American†¦students bristle. Because of the book’s constant use of the term and other instances of racism such as when Huck takes advantage of Jim’s gullibility and lack of education, tricking him with a snake skin, and later tries to convince him that a series of dramatic events were a dream, which both confuses and upsets Jim, makes teaching the book very difficult, no matter how sensitive one will attempt to be. For this reason, â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† should not be taught anywhere except in advanced senior English classes.As an advanced student, the level of maturity tends to be higher and the curriculum consists of a more broad and difficult selection, preparing the students for any style or type of writing. When hearing the use of a term such as the â€Å"n† word, most of these students will see it as a term to portray the time period and evoke strong emotions from the audience inst ead of taking it to offense. While the controversies that the offensive language stirs up are understandable, â€Å"The Adventures of Huck Finn† should be taught for the opportunity to discuss topics such as racism and to learn from Twain’s unique writing style.Without the opportunity to read â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,† students would lose the chance to experience Twain’s use of satirical humor and a historical setting and dialect. In an interview with Nancy Methelis, she says that â€Å"The Adventures of Huck Finn† â€Å"†¦is a part of American history as American literature, so they can see it its place within the spectrum of literature and history. † The book lends a realistic depiction of life during the times of slavery and helps to more understand the feelings and struggles of African Americans. Also throughout the book is a heavy use of satire.For example, Miss Watson attempts to become and better Christian, yet sh e owns slaves and considers them her property. Another instance is when Pap becomes outraged at the thought of a black man being able to vote even though the black man is more educated that him. Twain uses the tool of irony and satire to poke fun at the idea of white supremacy and uses his writing style to portray the flaws in society. By reading â€Å"The Adventures of Huck Finn,† one can build their reading skill by deciphering Twain’s style and can also experience an accurate description of pre-Civil War life.In conclusion, â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† should be taught in advanced senior classes only to ensure the students are mature enough to handle the complex aspects of the book such as the harsh language and literary tools. Although some might believe that the book is offensive and better off banned, I believe that the benefits one will receive from reading â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,† such as realistic depictions of hist ory and fine examples of American literature, are much too valuable.

The Chrysanthemums Essay - 1649 Words

John Steinbeck’s, The Chrysanthemums, was published in 1938 in a book of short stories, entitled The Long Valley. The Chrysanthemums has been a rather powerful draw for scholars because of its wide gap for interpretations and analysis of its main protagonist character, Elisa Allen and also the unique descriptions used to portray the deeper meaning behind the setting of the story. Themes of sexuality, oppression of women, as well as other numerous types of conflict portrayed in this rather somber short story have made it a popular study among scholars and students alike. Steinbeck also uses literary elements including a dramatic tone, rich symbolism, and personification which increase the stories feeling and value exponentially. Steinbeck†¦show more content†¦In conjunction with the symbolic representation of Elisa’s life, the dramatic description of the environment can also be seen as a unique representation of the relationship conflict between husband and wife . Steinbeck’s foggy description demonstrates conflict through the following statement, a time of quiet and waiting. This description is interesting because the fields are personified as waiting for rain, however, â€Å"rain and fog do not go together† therein lies the conflict just as Elisa waits for a positive change in how her husband treats her (Palmerino, Gregory J). Gregory P. further points out that, â€Å"The natural elements of the foothills ranch seem as unwilling to confront each other as the characters that inhabit its environs. Hence, fog and rain can be seen as the female and male equivalents to Elisa and Henry.† This only further solidifies the deep rooted troubles within Elisa and her relationship with her husband. The setting of the story is personified to act as a symbolic representation of the couple’s relationship (Steinbeck, John 337-338). The story concerns the unhappy marriage, which appears to be a theme in many of Steinbeck’s short stories, and the psychological effects this has primarily on the wife, Elisa Allen. The central character, Elisa, is appealing to many readers and scholars alike, because of the depth of her persona. Elisa is introduced to us in a less than feminine fashion which can be seen as a hint at oppression of women inShow MoreRelatedThe Chrysanthemums973 Words   |  4 Pages Prompt: How do the chrysanthemums as well as other symbols throughout the short story show women’s role in society? A Potential for Equality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans, just as flowers, cannot fully live without sunlight. They cannot develop without nourishment, and most of all they cannot flourish if not carefully tended to. Just as the Chrysanthemums fight to stay strong and meaningful in the short story, â€Å"The Chrysanthemums† by John Steinbeck, the main character, Emily, tries to do the same. 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